Koga, N. et al. Principles for designing ideal protein structures. Nature 491, 222–227 (2012).
Lin, Y.-R. et al. Control over overall shape and size in de novo designed proteins. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, E5478–E5485 (2015).
Huang, P.-S., Boyken, S. E. & Baker, D. The coming of age of de novo protein design. Nature 537, 320–327 (2016).
Huang, P.-S. et al. De novo design of a four-fold symmetric TIM-barrel protein with atomic-level accuracy. Nat. Chem. Biol. 12, 29–34 (2016).
Boyken, S. E. et al. De novo design of protein homo-oligomers with modular hydrogen-bond network–mediated specificity. Science 352, 680–687 (2016).
Lapedes, A. S., Bertrand, G. G., LonChang, L. & Stormo, G. D. Correlated mutations in models of protein sequences: Phylogenetic and structural effects. Lect. Notes Monogr. Ser. 33, 236–256 (1999).
Russ, W. P. et al. An evolution-based model for designing chorismate mutase enzymes. Science 369, 440–445 (2020).
Hopf, T. A. et al. The EVcouplings Python framework for coevolutionary sequence analysis. Bioinformatics 35, 1582–1584 (2019).
Morcos, F. et al. Direct-coupling analysis of residue coevolution captures native contacts across many protein families. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, E1293–E1301 (2011).
Ovchinnikov, S., Kamisetty, H. & Baker, D. Robust and accurate prediction of residue-residue interactions across protein interfaces using evolutionary information. eLife 3, e02030 (2014).
Alley, E. C., Khimulya, G., Biswas, S., AlQuraishi, M. & Church, G. M. Unified rational protein engineering with sequence-based deep representation learning. Nat. Methods 16, 1315–1322 (2019).
Wu, Z. et al. Signal peptides generated by attention-based neural networks. ACS Synth. Biol. 9, 2154–2161 (2020).
Shin, J.-E. et al. Protein design and variant prediction using autoregressive generative models. Nat. Commun. 12, 2403 (2021).
Jumper, J. et al. Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. Nature 596, 583–589 (2021).
Bryant, D. H. et al. Deep diversification of an AAV capsid protein by machine learning. Nat. Biotechnol. 39, 691–696 (2021).
Das, P. et al. Accelerated antimicrobial discovery via deep generative models and molecular dynamics simulations. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 5, 613–623 (2021).
Anishchenko, I. et al. De novo protein design by deep network hallucination. Nature 600, 547–552 (2021).
Moffat, L., Kandathil, S. M. & Jones, D. T. Design in the DARK: Learning deep generative models for De Novo Protein Design. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.01.27.478087 (2022).
Ferruz, N., Schmidt, S. & Höcker, B. ProtGPT2 is a deep unsupervised language model for protein design. Nat. Commun. 13, 4348 (2022).
Huang, B. et al. A backbone-centred energy function of neural networks for protein design. Nature 602, 523–528 (2022).
Leinonen, R. et al. UniProt archive. Bioinformatics 20, 3236–3237 (2004).
Bairoch, A. et al. The Universal Protein Resource (UniProt). Nucleic Acids Res. 33, D154–D159 (2005).
Finn, R. D. et al. Pfam: the protein families database. Nucleic Acids Res. 42, D222–D230 (2014).
Vaswani, A. et al. Attention is all you need. In 31st Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS, 2017).
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K. & Toutanova, K. BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In Proceedings of North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT, 2019).
Brown, T. B. et al. Language models are few-shot learners. In 34th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS, 2020).
Zellers, R. et al. Defending against neural fake news. In 33rd Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS, 2019).
Keskar, N. S., McCann, B., Varshney, L. R., Xiong, C. & Socher, R. CTRL: a conditional transformer language model for controllable generation. Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1909.05858 (2019).
AlQuraishi, M. The future of protein science will not be supervised. Some Thoughts on a Mysterious Universe https://moalquraishi.wordpress.com/2019/04/01/the-future-of-protein-science-will-not-be-supervised/ (2019).
Rives, A. et al. Biological structure and function emerge from scaling unsupervised learning to 250 million protein sequences. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2016239118 (2021).
Elnaggar, A. et al. ProtTrans: towards cracking the language of lifes code through self-supervised deep learning and high performance computing. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 44, 7112–7127 (2021).
Peters, M. E. et al. Deep contextualized word representations. In Proceedings of North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT, 2018).
Howard, J. & Ruder, S. Universal language model fine-tuning for text classification. In Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL, 2018).
Radford, A., Narasimhan, K., Salimans, T. & Sutskever, I. Improving language understanding by generative pre-training. Preprint at https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/openai-assets/research-covers/language-unsupervised/language_understanding_paper.pdf (2018).
Biswas, S., Khimulya, G., Alley, E. C., Esvelt, K. M. & Church, G. M. Low-N protein engineering with data-efficient deep learning. Nat. Methods 18, 389–396 (2021).
Pfaff, C. W. Constraints on language mixing: Intrasentential code-switching and borrowing in Spanish/English. Language 55, 291–318 (1979).
Poplack, S. Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish Y TERMINO EN ESPAÑOL: toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics 18, 581–618 (1980).
Dathathri, S. et al. Plug and play language models: a simple approach to controlled text generation. In 8th International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR, 2020).
Matthews, B. W. Comparison of the predicted and observed secondary structure of T4 phage lysozyme. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 405, 442–451 (1975).
Broendum, S. S., Buckle, A. M. & McGowan, S. Catalytic diversity and cell wall binding repeats in the phage-encoded endolysins. Mol. Microbiol. 110, 879–896 (2018).
Love, M. J., Abeysekera, G. S., Muscroft-Taylor, A. C., Billington, C. & Dobson, R. C. J. On the catalytic mechanism of bacteriophage endolysins: opportunities for engineering. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Proteins Proteom. 1868, 140302 (2020).
Martin, P. P. Potts Models And Related Problems In Statistical Mechanics (World Scientific, 1991).
Thomas, J., Ramakrishnan, N. & Bailey-Kellogg, C. Graphical models of residue coupling in protein families. IEEE/ACM Trans. Comput. Biol. Bioinform. 5, 183–197 (2008).
Weigt, M., White, R. A., Szurmant, H., Hoch, J. A. & Hwa, T. Identification of direct residue contacts in protein–protein interaction by message passing. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 67–72 (2009).
Balakrishnan, S., Kamisetty, H., Carbonell, J. G., Lee, S.-I. & Langmead, C. J. Learning generative models for protein fold families. Proteins 79, 1061–1078 (2011).
Stein, R. R., Marks, D. S. & Sander, C. Inferring pairwise interactions from biological data using maximum-entropy probability models. PLoS Comput. Biol. 11, e1004182 (2015).
Mirdita, M., Steinegger, M., Breitwieser, F., Söding, J. & Levy Karin, E. Fast and sensitive taxonomic assignment to metagenomic contigs. Binformatics 37, 3029–3031 (2021).
Mooers, B. H. M., Tronrud, D. E. & Matthews, B. W. Evaluation at atomic resolution of the role of strain in destabilizing the temperature-sensitive T4 lysozyme mutant Arg 96 → His. Protein Sci. 18, 863–870 (2009).
Baase, W. A., Liu, L., Tronrud, D. E. & Matthews, B. W. Lessons from the lysozyme of phage T4. Protein Sci. 19, 631–641 (2010).
Kuroki, R., Weaver, L. H. & Matthews, B. W. A covalent enzyme–substrate intermediate with saccharide distortion in a mutant T4 lysozyme. Science 262, 2030–2033 (1993).
Mchaourab, H. S., Oh, K. J., Fang, C. J. & Hubbell, W. L. Conformation of T4 lysozyme in solution. Hinge-bending motion and the substrate-induced conformational transition studied by site-directed spin labeling. Biochemistry 36, 307–316 (1997).
Kim, J.-K. et al. BetaCavityWeb: a webserver for molecular voids and channels. Nucleic Acids Res. 43, W413–W418 (2015).
Rost, B. Twilight zone of protein sequence alignments. Protein Eng. 12, 85–94 (1999).
Pearson, W. R. An introduction to sequence similarity (‘homology’) searching. Curr. Protoc. Bioinforma. 3, 3.1 (2013). ChapterUnit.
Repecka, D. et al. Expanding functional protein sequence spaces using generative adversarial networks. Nat. Mach. Intell. 3, 324–333 (2021).
Ruder, S., Peters, M. E., Swayamdipta, S. & Wolf, T. Transfer learning in natural language processing. In Proc. 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (eds Jill Burstein, J., Doran, C. & Solorio T.) (Association for Computational Linguistics, 2019).
Huh, M., Agrawal, P. & Efros, A. A. What makes ImageNet good for transfer learning? Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1608.08614 (2016).
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y. & Hinton, G. Deep learning. Nature 521, 436–444 (2015).
Norn, C. et al. Protein sequence design by conformational landscape optimization. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2017228118 (2021).
Anand, N. et al. Protein sequence design with a learned potential. Nat. Commun. 13, 746 (2022).
Federhen, S. The NCBI Taxonomy database. Nucleic Acids Res. 40, D136–D143 (2012).
Pettit, L. D. The IUPAC stability constants database. Chem. Int. 28, 14–15 (2006).
Ashburner, M. et al. Gene ontology: tool for the unification of biology. The Gene Ontology Consortium. Nat. Genet. 25, 25–29 (2000).
Bengio, Y., Ducharme, R., Vincent, P. & Janvin, C. A neural probabilistic language model. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 3, 1137–1155 (2003).
Madani, A. et al. ProGen: language modeling for protein generation. Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.07.982272 (2020).
Vig, J. et al. BERTology meets biology: Interpreting attention in protein language models. In International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR, 2020).
Goyal, K., Dyer, C. & Berg-Kirkpatrick, T. Exposing the implicit energy networks behind masked language models via metropolis–hastings. In 10th International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR, 2022).
Bhattacharya, N. et al. Single layers of attention suffice to predict protein contacts. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.21.423882 (2020).
Ramsauer, H. et al. Hopfield Networks is All You Need. Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2008.02217 (2020).
Alley, E., Khimulya, G., Biswas, S., AlQuraishi, M. & Church, G. M. Unified rational protein engineering with sequence-based deep representation learning. Nat. Methods 16, 1315–1322 (2019).
Rao, R. et al. Evaluating protein transfer learning with TAPE. Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 32, 9689–9701 (2019).
Kingma, D. P. & Ba, J. Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. Preprint arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1412.6980 (2014).
Pascanu, R., Mikolov, T. & Bengio, Y. On the difficulty of training recurrent neural networks. In Proc. 30th International Conference on Machine Learning (eds. Dasgupta, S. & McAllester, D.) 1310–1318 (PMLR, 2013).
Srivastava, N., Hinton, G., Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I. & Salakhutdinov, R. Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 15, 1929–1958 (2014).
Holtzman, A., Buys, J., Du, L., Forbes, M. & Choi, Y. The curious case of neural text degeneration. In 8th International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR, 2020).
Goodfellow, I. J. et al. Generative adversarial networks. In 28th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS, 2014).
Koehn, P. Pharaoh: a beam search decoder for phrase-based statistical machine translation models. in Machine Translation: From Real Users to Research 115–124 (Springer, 2004).
Sun, Z. Z. et al. Protocols for implementing an Escherichia coli based TX-TL cell-free expression system for synthetic biology. J. Vis. Exp. 16, e50762 (2013).
Kabsch, W. XDS. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 125–132 (2010).
McCoy, A. J. et al. Phaser crystallographic software. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 40, 658–674 (2007).
Kovalevskiy, O., Nicholls, R. A., Long, F., Carlon, A. & Murshudov, G. N. Overview of refinement procedures within REFMAC5: utilizing data from different sources. Acta Crystallogr D Struct. Biol. 74, 215–227 (2018).
Terwilliger, T. C. et al. Iterative model building, structure refinement and density modification with the PHENIX AutoBuild wizard. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 64, 61–69 (2008).
Hoh, S. W., Burnley, T. & Cowtan, K. Current approaches for automated model building into cryo-EM maps using Buccaneer with CCP-EM. Acta Crystallogr D Struct. Biol. 76, 531–541 (2020).
Emsley, P., Lohkamp, B., Scott, W. G. & Cowtan, K. Features and development of Coot. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 486–501 (2010).
Afonine, P. V. et al. Towards automated crystallographic structure refinement with phenix.refine. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 68, 352–367 (2012).
Raffel, C. et al. Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer. Preprint at arXiv https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1910.10683 (2019).
Studier, F. W. Protein production by auto-induction in high density shaking cultures. Protein Expr. Purif. 41, 207–234 (2005).
Mirdita, M. et al. ColabFold: making protein folding accessible to all. Nat. Methods 19, 679–682 (2022).